Exponential rates of urbanisation in LEDCs have led to the development of illegal squatter settlements around urban agglomerations.
Dharavi slum in central Mumbai exhibits the symptoms of the gross rate of urbanisation that has been effecting LEDCs in the past century.
It is located near the central business district [only heightening the perception of social polarity]
Located the Mahim Creek system meaning its land is vulnerable to flooding - the extent of the urbanisation is such that people must resort to such low quality land.
The population estimates vary but it is widely believed that up to 1 million people live within 1 sq mile in Dharavi. There are no census records - the development of the settlement is unregulated.
-This also means that making ones way around the unplanned settlement is near impossible.
-There are 12 neighbours joined only by winding narrow passages. There no maps or roads.
-Thus we wonder, how can this settlement be developed with modern infrastructure like street lighting and waste collection?
The rate of urbanisation has been such that the formal economy cannot support the influx of migrants, thus a thriving informal economy has established
-150,000 single room factories
-There is a booming recycling industry [a sustainable future for Dharavi or a major risk to health as people sort waste by hand?]
The growing population size cannot be supported by the fragile infrastructure.
-Water must therefore be rationed, only being available for 2 hours a day
-500 people share one latrine
-Many people resort to using Mahim Creek as site for defecation but also use the river for washing purposes leading to the rapid spread of disease, for example typhoid. 4000 cases of the disease are reported daily.
Then again, the community spirit in Dharavi is second to none.
-People graft together
-85% of the slum population are employed
-The crime rate is exceedingly low
-There is a high tolerance for religious diversity
Saturday 30 May 2015
Urbanisation in a LEDC City: Mumbai
A case study of HYPERURBANISATION
Where is Mumbai?: Western Coast of India, located on the coast of the Arabian Sea
Important Background information:
-Mumbai was previously known as Bombay
-It was colonised by the British in the 1600s
-Populations growth was half that of Europe in the 19th Century
-Could this have been due to the British rule... the import of grain from India to Europe?
-It led to scarcities and famines... restricting the development of the country
[Another example of the link of economic development and urbanisation]
-The climate is tropical exacerbating the problems within the slum areas
-It gained independence in 1947 [the rate of urbanisation increased to 5%]
-The Suez Canal encouraged the growth of the booming cotton trade
-It was known as the 'Manchester of the East'... *N.B. the city is now diversifying into IT services
Mumbai should be known as 'a city of contrasts'- that is, it is highly polarised.
-Its successes economically are paralleled by the growth of slums around its periphery
It has developed economically and yields politically/cultural influence:
-Bollywood - Hindi language film industry
-Rents are higher than in New York and London!
-40% of India's foreign trade is channelled through Mumbai
-Growing middle class: 3 million
This is contrasted by the dire poverty:
-60% of Mumbai's population lives in slum conditions
-The slum provide little taxes as the informal sector dominates
-150,000 single room factories or 'cottage industries'- wages can be $40 a month or lower
Where is Mumbai?: Western Coast of India, located on the coast of the Arabian Sea
Important Background information:
-Mumbai was previously known as Bombay
-It was colonised by the British in the 1600s
-Populations growth was half that of Europe in the 19th Century
-Could this have been due to the British rule... the import of grain from India to Europe?
-It led to scarcities and famines... restricting the development of the country
[Another example of the link of economic development and urbanisation]
-The climate is tropical exacerbating the problems within the slum areas
-It gained independence in 1947 [the rate of urbanisation increased to 5%]
-The Suez Canal encouraged the growth of the booming cotton trade
-It was known as the 'Manchester of the East'... *N.B. the city is now diversifying into IT services
Mumbai should be known as 'a city of contrasts'- that is, it is highly polarised.
-Its successes economically are paralleled by the growth of slums around its periphery
It has developed economically and yields politically/cultural influence:
-Bollywood - Hindi language film industry
-Rents are higher than in New York and London!
-40% of India's foreign trade is channelled through Mumbai
-Growing middle class: 3 million
This is contrasted by the dire poverty:
-60% of Mumbai's population lives in slum conditions
-The slum provide little taxes as the informal sector dominates
-150,000 single room factories or 'cottage industries'- wages can be $40 a month or lower
Wikipedia: Sourcing information on Causes of Urbanisation
Urbanization occurs as individual, commercial flight, social and governmental efforts reduce time and expense in commuting and transportation and improve opportunities for jobs, education, housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits the advantages of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. However, the advantages of urbanization are weighed against alienation issues, stress, increased daily life costs, and negative social aspects that result from mass marginalization. Suburbanization, which is happening in the cities of the largest developing countries, was sold and seen as an attempt to balance these negative aspects of urban life while still allowing access to the large extent of shared resources.
Cities are known to be places where money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized. Many rural inhabitants come to the city for reasons of seeking fortunes and social mobility. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital are more concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems that foreign money flows into a country, commonly located in cities.
Economic opportunities are just one reason people move into cities, though they do not go to fully explain why urbanization rates have exploded only recently in places like China and India. Rural flight is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas, often on small family farms or collective farms in villages, it has traditionally been difficult to access manufactured goods, though overall quality of life is very subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the city. Farm living has always been susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, and in times of drought, flood or pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic.
In a New York Times article concerning the acute migration away from farming in Thailand, life as a farmer was described as "hot and exhausting." "Everyone says the farmer works the hardest but gets the least amount of money". In an effort to counter this impression, the Agriculture Department of Thailand is seeking to promote the impression that farming is "honorable and secure".[16]
However, in Thailand, urbanization has also resulted in massive increases in problems such as obesity. City life, especially in modern urban slums of the developing world, is certainly hardly immune to pestilence or climatic disturbances such as floods, yet continues to strongly attract migrants. Examples of this were the 2011 Thailand floods and 2007 Jakarta flood. Urban areas are also far more prone to violence, drugs, and other urban social problems. In the case of the United States, industrialization of agriculture has negatively affected the economy of small and middle-sized farms and strongly reduced the size of the rural labour market.
Particularly in the developing world, conflict over land rights due to the effects of globalization has led to less politically powerful groups, such as farmers, losing or forfeiting their land, resulting in obligatory migration into cities. In China, where land acquisition measures are forceful, there has been far more extensive and rapid urbanization (54%) than in India (36%), where peasants form militant groups (e.g. Naxalites) to oppose such efforts. Obligatory and unplanned migration often results in rapid growth of slums. This is also similar to areas of violent conflict, where people are driven off their land due to violence. Bogota, Colombia is one example of this.
Cities offer a larger variety of services, such as specialist services that aren't found in rural areas. Supporting the provision of these services requires workers, resulting in more numerous and varied job opportunities. Elderly individuals may be forced to move to cities where there are doctors and hospitals that can cater for their health needs. Varied and high quality educational opportunities are another factor in urban migration, as well as the opportunity to join, develop, and seek out social communities.
Urbanization also creates greater opportunities for women that are otherwise denied to them living in rural areas. This creates a gender-related transformation where women are engaged in paid employment and have access to education resulting in demographic implications in which fertility levels decline. However, women are still at a disadvantage due to their unequal position in the labour market, their inability to secure assets independently from male relatives and exposure to violence.
People located in cities are more productive than those working outside dense agglomerations. An important question for the policy makers as well as for clustering people deals with the causality of this relationship, that is whether people become more productive in cities due to certain agglomeration effects or are cities simply attracting those who are more productive. Economists have recently shown that there exists indeed a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations. It is thus possible that agents locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects
Cities are known to be places where money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized. Many rural inhabitants come to the city for reasons of seeking fortunes and social mobility. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital are more concentrated in urban areas. Whether the source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems that foreign money flows into a country, commonly located in cities.
Economic opportunities are just one reason people move into cities, though they do not go to fully explain why urbanization rates have exploded only recently in places like China and India. Rural flight is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas, often on small family farms or collective farms in villages, it has traditionally been difficult to access manufactured goods, though overall quality of life is very subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the city. Farm living has always been susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, and in times of drought, flood or pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic.
In a New York Times article concerning the acute migration away from farming in Thailand, life as a farmer was described as "hot and exhausting." "Everyone says the farmer works the hardest but gets the least amount of money". In an effort to counter this impression, the Agriculture Department of Thailand is seeking to promote the impression that farming is "honorable and secure".[16]
However, in Thailand, urbanization has also resulted in massive increases in problems such as obesity. City life, especially in modern urban slums of the developing world, is certainly hardly immune to pestilence or climatic disturbances such as floods, yet continues to strongly attract migrants. Examples of this were the 2011 Thailand floods and 2007 Jakarta flood. Urban areas are also far more prone to violence, drugs, and other urban social problems. In the case of the United States, industrialization of agriculture has negatively affected the economy of small and middle-sized farms and strongly reduced the size of the rural labour market.
Particularly in the developing world, conflict over land rights due to the effects of globalization has led to less politically powerful groups, such as farmers, losing or forfeiting their land, resulting in obligatory migration into cities. In China, where land acquisition measures are forceful, there has been far more extensive and rapid urbanization (54%) than in India (36%), where peasants form militant groups (e.g. Naxalites) to oppose such efforts. Obligatory and unplanned migration often results in rapid growth of slums. This is also similar to areas of violent conflict, where people are driven off their land due to violence. Bogota, Colombia is one example of this.
Cities offer a larger variety of services, such as specialist services that aren't found in rural areas. Supporting the provision of these services requires workers, resulting in more numerous and varied job opportunities. Elderly individuals may be forced to move to cities where there are doctors and hospitals that can cater for their health needs. Varied and high quality educational opportunities are another factor in urban migration, as well as the opportunity to join, develop, and seek out social communities.
Urbanization also creates greater opportunities for women that are otherwise denied to them living in rural areas. This creates a gender-related transformation where women are engaged in paid employment and have access to education resulting in demographic implications in which fertility levels decline. However, women are still at a disadvantage due to their unequal position in the labour market, their inability to secure assets independently from male relatives and exposure to violence.
People located in cities are more productive than those working outside dense agglomerations. An important question for the policy makers as well as for clustering people deals with the causality of this relationship, that is whether people become more productive in cities due to certain agglomeration effects or are cities simply attracting those who are more productive. Economists have recently shown that there exists indeed a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations. It is thus possible that agents locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects
Economic development and urbanisation: The Link
Economic development is quite a broad term and doesn't necessarily mean an increase in GDP, i.e. economic growth.
Think about the early forms of urbanisation, especially in Europe.
The agricultural revolution brought with it great sectorial change to Britain.
Surpluses in the rural economy meant that people could diversify and focus upon trade and commerce. The surpluses allowed for greater natural increase. This was a kind of economic development, it was directly related to urbanisation. [a catalyst for it or a driver of development?]
'Chicken and egg' question. A large population is needed for the division of labour.
Then the industrial revolution hailed a great expansion of urban areas. The economy developed in the UK, with less focus on farming and more investment in coal powered factories located in cities.
Developments:
-Improvement of transport systems
-Improvements in health care
-New forms of power. Coal e.g. Newcastle
-Development of the factory system
Newcastle upon Tyne is a prime example of a city whose expansion was based upon industrialisation [economic development].
Think about the early forms of urbanisation, especially in Europe.
The agricultural revolution brought with it great sectorial change to Britain.
Surpluses in the rural economy meant that people could diversify and focus upon trade and commerce. The surpluses allowed for greater natural increase. This was a kind of economic development, it was directly related to urbanisation. [a catalyst for it or a driver of development?]
'Chicken and egg' question. A large population is needed for the division of labour.
Then the industrial revolution hailed a great expansion of urban areas. The economy developed in the UK, with less focus on farming and more investment in coal powered factories located in cities.
Developments:
-Improvement of transport systems
-Improvements in health care
-New forms of power. Coal e.g. Newcastle
-Development of the factory system
Newcastle upon Tyne is a prime example of a city whose expansion was based upon industrialisation [economic development].
Newcastle's development as a major city owed most to its central role in the production and export of coal. The phrase "taking coals to Newcastle" was first recorded in 1538; it proverbially denotes bringing a particular commodity to a place that has more than enough of it already.
In the 19th century, shipbuilding and heavy engineering were central to the city's prosperity; and the city was a powerhouse of the Industrial Revolution.
Note: Most world cities are located in developed countries. These world cities are dominated by tertiary jobs. They have shed their manufacturing/mining/industrial activities onto developing countries. GLOBALISATION [THE DISPERSAL OF PRODUCTION WORLDWIDE] Thus we see the highest rates of urbanisation in these areas. They are experiencing a similar revolution in their economies. But the rate is exponential in comparison.
The 1988 report of the National
Commission on Urbanisation to the Government of India notes that, while India's
urban dwellers have increased four times over since 1947 (from some 50 to over
200 million), public attitudes to cities have remained ambivalent:
[Is economic development being outstripped by the rate of urbanisation...is urbanisation having a differing effect on LEDCs compared to MEDCs because they are at differing stages of economic development]
"On the one hand, we see them as
heroic engines of growth...On the other, these urban centres have also
generated the most brutal and inhuman living conditions".
What is a world (global) city?
We must first note that world cities can be of any size.
What sets them apart/places them so high upon the urban hierarchy is their disproportionate importance economically, politically and culturally.
World cities account for 30% of global economic activity.
The elite 'top three' are considered to be London, Tokyo and New York.
Let's look at Tokyo as an example firstly.
Japan is the 2nd wealthiest economy in the world and Tokyo is the centre of this economy.
It is renowned for its modernity and high levels of consumer spending.
Its economic diversity is very important. It is the home to YOKOHAMA the country's leading port and KAWASAKI a centre of manufacturing.
Next, consider New York.
The HQ of the United Nations is located here. Think about the cultural significance of NY. The 'beat' scene of the 1950s, with Allen Ginsberg, and the 'hip-hip' scene of the 1970s which emanated from the Bronx.
-The 1909 planning laws meant that the slums gathering on NY's periphery were cleared. They were responsible for the grid iron system of streets we know today.
-Diverse culture diaspora. New York is well known for its tolerance of ethnic diversity.
London is a very obvious world city.
-Its GDP is greater than both the countries of Sweden and Switzerland
-It accounts for 40% of the UKs GDP
-Consider how well connected London is, with Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted Airport.
-Home to many TNC HQ, e.g. Canary Wharf
What sets them apart/places them so high upon the urban hierarchy is their disproportionate importance economically, politically and culturally.
World cities account for 30% of global economic activity.
The elite 'top three' are considered to be London, Tokyo and New York.
Let's look at Tokyo as an example firstly.
Japan is the 2nd wealthiest economy in the world and Tokyo is the centre of this economy.
It is renowned for its modernity and high levels of consumer spending.
Its economic diversity is very important. It is the home to YOKOHAMA the country's leading port and KAWASAKI a centre of manufacturing.
Next, consider New York.
The HQ of the United Nations is located here. Think about the cultural significance of NY. The 'beat' scene of the 1950s, with Allen Ginsberg, and the 'hip-hip' scene of the 1970s which emanated from the Bronx.
-The 1909 planning laws meant that the slums gathering on NY's periphery were cleared. They were responsible for the grid iron system of streets we know today.
-Diverse culture diaspora. New York is well known for its tolerance of ethnic diversity.
London is a very obvious world city.
-Its GDP is greater than both the countries of Sweden and Switzerland
-It accounts for 40% of the UKs GDP
-Consider how well connected London is, with Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted Airport.
-Home to many TNC HQ, e.g. Canary Wharf
What causes lie behind the increase in urban agglomerations?
An urban agglomeration is an extended city or town area comprising the built-up area of a central place.
1. 'Communication economies'.
Companies prefer being situated close to one another. It offers the benefits of shared infrastructure, low transport costs and simplicity of organising face to face contact.
London is an excellent example of this. Think about the 'banking area' Canary Wharf or... Lime Street where Lloyds, Willis and the 'Walkie Talkie' building are all located close together.
2. Cumulative causation or the 'multiplier effect'.
1. 'Communication economies'.
Companies prefer being situated close to one another. It offers the benefits of shared infrastructure, low transport costs and simplicity of organising face to face contact.
London is an excellent example of this. Think about the 'banking area' Canary Wharf or... Lime Street where Lloyds, Willis and the 'Walkie Talkie' building are all located close together.
2. Cumulative causation or the 'multiplier effect'.
Learn diagrams for the exam, increases marks.
The 'mass-gravity' effect is linked in here. This is the idea that success breeds success.
3. The 'basic inputs'.
This refers simply to the addition of people to the urban population via NATURAL INCREASE and RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
4. Status-Symbol syndrome
This conveys the idea that cities often have a 'prestige' about them as events/development is centred there.
People are attracted to being at 'the centre of things'
London is often called a 'magnet' or 'sinkhole' for young newly graduated people.
5. Development.
This refers to general economic development and advances in technology such as transport.
Think about the effect of the electrification of the main line in the UK. The reduced travel times meant that people could travel with greater ease up and down the country. 70% of train journeys begin or end in London.
The global pattern of Urban Areas
Firstly let's understand the trends in urbanisation globally...
The most urbanised areas are developed countries (MEDCs)
The largest metropolises are in developing countries (LEDCs)
The rate of urbanisation is fastest in LEDCs
LEDCs: The proportion of people living in urban areas has reached 50%
MEDCs: This figure is quickly catching up on the figure of 73% in developed countries
Now. Why is the rate so exponential in LEDCs?
-The large rural-urban economic gap.
-The larger the (perceived) gap between urban and rural areas the greater the rate/extent of migration.
[Migrants seek to move from the SUBSISTANCE sector to the CAPITALIST sector in which higher wages are available]
-The pool of agricultural workers ready to migrate is greater than the numbers in the 19th century (the industrial revolution, the period of urbanisation for European cities)
-The costs to migrate are now lower than in the 19th century
-LEDCs have a more advanced radial transport network (compared to the network establishing in the 19th century)
-The liberalisation of trade- firms/companies have spread out (perhaps seeking low-wage economies)
The basic inputs:
HIGH NATURAL INCREASE
RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
Think about the typical profile of a migrant...
Young and seeking employment
Child bearing age
Next. Why is urbanisation perhaps slowing in MEDCs?
-Processes of counter urbanisation. I.e. The attraction of rural lifestyle
-Increased mobility means long commutes are now more viable
-Lower rates of natural increase as families are more materialistically driven
-These areas have largely shed their industrial activities onto LEDCs
The distribution of 'mega cities' illustrated above shows the progressive urbanisation in Asia
-In 20 years (1990-2010) China's urban population almost doubled
http://asiancenturyinstitute.com/development/224-urbanization-and-slums-in-asia
[Despite the exponential rates of urbanisation in Asia, it is still the 2nd least urbanised area after Africa]
Summary... As the map shows, the global distribution of urban areas has shifted majorly to the Eastern Hemisphere
The most urbanised areas are developed countries (MEDCs)
The largest metropolises are in developing countries (LEDCs)
The rate of urbanisation is fastest in LEDCs
LEDCs: The proportion of people living in urban areas has reached 50%
MEDCs: This figure is quickly catching up on the figure of 73% in developed countries
Now. Why is the rate so exponential in LEDCs?
-The large rural-urban economic gap.
-The larger the (perceived) gap between urban and rural areas the greater the rate/extent of migration.
[Migrants seek to move from the SUBSISTANCE sector to the CAPITALIST sector in which higher wages are available]
-The pool of agricultural workers ready to migrate is greater than the numbers in the 19th century (the industrial revolution, the period of urbanisation for European cities)
-The costs to migrate are now lower than in the 19th century
-LEDCs have a more advanced radial transport network (compared to the network establishing in the 19th century)
-The liberalisation of trade- firms/companies have spread out (perhaps seeking low-wage economies)
The basic inputs:
HIGH NATURAL INCREASE
RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
Think about the typical profile of a migrant...
Young and seeking employment
Child bearing age
Next. Why is urbanisation perhaps slowing in MEDCs?
-Processes of counter urbanisation. I.e. The attraction of rural lifestyle
-Increased mobility means long commutes are now more viable
-Lower rates of natural increase as families are more materialistically driven
-These areas have largely shed their industrial activities onto LEDCs
The distribution of 'mega cities' illustrated above shows the progressive urbanisation in Asia
-In 20 years (1990-2010) China's urban population almost doubled
http://asiancenturyinstitute.com/development/224-urbanization-and-slums-in-asia
" A common image of Asian urbanization is the growth of mega-cities, cities whose population exceeds 10 million. And 12 of the world’s 21 mega-cities are indeed in Asia (including 7 of the largest 10 cities). Cities like Tokyo, Delhi, Mumbai and Shanghai."
[Despite the exponential rates of urbanisation in Asia, it is still the 2nd least urbanised area after Africa]
Summary... As the map shows, the global distribution of urban areas has shifted majorly to the Eastern Hemisphere
A2 Geography Subject Content
Option 4: World Cities
The global pattern: millionaire cities, mega cities and world cities.Economic development and change related to urbanisation.
Contemporary urbanisation processes
Urbanisation: characteristics, causes and effects.Suburbanisation: characteristics, causes and effects.
Counter-urbanisation: characteristics, causes and effects.
Re-urbanisation: characteristics, causes and effects.
Planning and management issues.
Contrasting case studies within countries at different levels of economic development to demonstrate the above.
Urban decline and regeneration within urban areas
Characteristics and causes of urban decline.Urban regeneration: gentrification, property-led regeneration schemes, partnership schemes between local and national governments and the private sector.
Retailing and other services
The decentralisation of retailing and other services – causes and impacts.One case study of an out of town centre retailing area.
The redevelopment of urban centres – impacts and responses, including one case study of an urban centre that has undergone redevelopment.
Contemporary sustainability issues in urban areas
Waste management: recycling and its alternatives.Transport and its management: the development of integrated, efficient and sustainable systems.
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